vitamin k and calcium relationship28 May vitamin k and calcium relationship
In contrast, therapy with very high pharmacological doses of the vitamin K2 menatetrenone has impressively been used to prevent further bone mineral loss and fracture risk in osteoporotic patients. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal It reduces the body's absorption of dietary fat and in doing so, it can also reduce the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin K. Combining orlistat with warfarin therapy might cause a significant increase in prothrombin time [48]. This -carboxylation allows VKD proteins to bind calcium. Menaquinones, which are predominantly of bacterial origin, are present in modest amounts in various animal-based and fermented foods [1,4]. Calcium-Vitamin D3-Vitamin K Oral: Uses, Side Effects - WebMD The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Hamidi MS, Gajic-Veljanoski O, Cheung AM. Effects of vitamin K in postmenopausal women: mini review. We encourage you to talk to your health care providers (doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc.) Vitamin K Intake and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in the Those benefits are why adequate daily intakes for calcium have been established. If You Take Vitamin D, You May Need This Other Vitamin to Reduce - MSN Correlations for the . The relationship between serum vitamin K concentration - ScienceDirect 10th ed. Vitamin K supplements are usually not needed unless antibiotic use is prolonged (beyond several weeks) and accompanied by poor vitamin K intake [46]. 2023 Mar 7;15(6):1302. doi: 10.3390/nu15061302. The circulating inactive form of matrix gla protein is a surrogate marker for vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: a preliminary report. Newer perspectives on calcium nutrition and bone quality. [. Cumming RG, Cummings SR, Nevitt MC, et al. Phylloquinone is present primarily in green leafy vegetables and is the main dietary form of vitamin K [3]. 2014;144(Part A):2227. Vitamin K Deficiency - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf K1 is the form in which vitamin K produces clotting factors. The FDA has not authorized a health claim for vitamin K in the United States. The Aging Features of Thyrotoxicosis Mice: Malnutrition, Immunosenescence and Lipotoxicity. The purpose of this review is to summarize available evidence of t In adults aged 20 and older, the average daily vitamin K intake from foods is 122 mcg for women and 138 mcg for men. Vitamin K contents of meat, dairy, and fast food in the U.S. [. The circulating inactive form of matrix Gla Protein (ucMGP) as a biomarker for cardiovascular calcification. [, Booth SL, Dallal G, Shea MK, Gundberg C, Peterson JW, Dawson-Hughes B. Drug-Nutrient Interaction Task Force, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health. Westenfeld R, Krueger T, Schlieper G, et al. Electrolyte Relationships: Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin D European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. "Late VKDB" occurs at ages 212 weeks, especially in exclusively breastfed infants due to the low vitamin K content of breast milk or in infants with malabsorption problems (such as cholestatic jaundice or cystic fibrosis) [7]. Request an osteocalcin test; it measures how much uncarboxylated osteocalcin is present in the blood. Calcium serves many important roles in the human body, including (1) providing structure and hardness to bones and teeth, (2) allowing muscles to contract and nerves to send signals, (3) making blood vessels expand and contract, (4) helping blood to clot, and (5) supporting protein function and hormone regulation.17 Even though dairy products represent a rich source of calcium, approximately 43% of the US population and 70% of older women regularly take calcium supplements.18 Calcium supplementation is supported by several studies that back its benefits for bone health and osteoporosis prevention as well as for overall health. Vitamin K deficiency results in inadequate activation of MGP, which greatly impairs the process of calcium removal and increases the risk of calcification of the blood vessels. These drugs antagonize the activity of vitamin K, leading to the depletion of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. The entire skeleton is replaced every 7 to 10 years. Case Report: Unable to Jump Like a Kangaroo Due to Myositis Ossificans Circumscripta. Current evidence supports the notion that joint supplementation of vitamins D and K might be more effective than the consumption of either alone for bone and cardiovascular health. [, Chan R, Leung J, Woo J. American Society of Echocardiography. Those findings were supported by another population-based study with 16 000 healthy women aged 49 to 70 years that was drawn from EPICs cohort population.53 After 8 years, the data showed that a high intake of natural vitamin K2 (ie, not synthetic K2, but not of vitamin K1) was associated with protection against cardiovascular events. It is also available in dietary supplements containing only vitamin K or vitamin K combined with a few other nutrients, frequently calcium, magnesium, and/or vitamin D. These supplements tend to have a wider range of vitamin K doses than multivitamin/mineral supplements, with some providing 4,050 mcg (5,063% of the DV) or another very high amount [18]. Vitamin K was discovered in 1929 as an essential nutrient for blood coagulation, which is the scientific term for blood clotting. [, Rejnmark L, Vestergaard P, Charles P, Hermann AP, Brot C, Eiken P, et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2006). Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Calcium, vitamin D, vitamin K2, and magnesium - ScienceDirect Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2010. Ufer M. Comparative pharmacokinetics of vitamin K antagonists: warfarin, phenprocoumon and acenocoumarol. Schurgers LJ, Teunissen KJ, Hamulyak K, Knapen MH, Vik H, Vermeer C. Vitamin K-containing dietary supplements: comparison of synthetic vitamin K1 and natto-derived menaquinone-7. [, Yaegashi Y, Onoda T, Tanno K, Kuribayashi T, Sakata K, Orimo H. Association of hip fracture incidence and intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin D, and vitamin K. Eur J Epidemiol 2008;23:219-25. (Booth SL, Broe KE, J Clin Endocrinol Metab; Knapen MH, Schurgers LJ, Osteoporos Int. Geleijnse JM, Vermeer C, Grobbee DE, et al. All participants also received daily supplements containing 630 mg calcium and 400 IU vitamin D3. Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. In fact, studies on natto support the importance of vitamin K2 in the form of menaquinone with 7 isoprene residues (MK-7). EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, NaA. Washington, DC: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012:230-47. Beulens JW, Bots ML, Atsma F, et al. Based on these findings, the authors did not make any clinical recommendations, and they called for larger studies in other populations. Osteoporosis, a disorder characterized by porous and fragile bones, is a serious public health problem that affects more than 10 million U.S. adults, 80% of whom are women. Participants received either a multivitamin (containing B-vitamins, vitamin C, and vitamin E) plus 500 IU vitamin D3, 600 mg calcium, and 500 mcg phylloquinone daily (treatment) or a multivitamin plus calcium and vitamin D3 only (control) for 3 years. 2012 Feb;23(2):705-14. doi: 10.1007/s00198-011-1594-1. Vitamin K2 serves an important role in cardiovascular health through regulation of calcium homeostasis. WebMD does not endorse any specific product, service or treatment. eCollection 2022. J Am Coll Nutr 2014;33:94-102. 2017;12(2):e0172350. Demer LL, Tintut Y. Vascular calcification: pathobiology of a multifaceted disease. Menadione, which is sometimes called "vitamin K3," is another synthetic form of vitamin K. It was shown to damage hepatic cells in laboratory studies conducted during the 1980s and 1990s, so it is no longer used in dietary supplements or fortified foods [3]. Regulation of the extrarenal CYP27B1-hydroxylase. Because vitamin K is required for the carboxylation of osteocalcin in bone, vitamin K deficiency could also reduce bone mineralization and contribute to osteoporosis [23]. about your interest in, questions about, or use of dietary supplements and what may be best for your overall health. Adv Nutr 2013;4:463-73. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Although vitamin K1 is present in green leafy vegetables, only 10% of the total amount is absorbed from that source in the diets of people in industrialized countries.6061 The only exception seems to be the Japanese diet, particularly for the portion of the population consuming high quantities of foods rich in vitamin K2, such as natto. Thromb Haemost 2004), Produced by bacteria and also via the conversion of K1 to K2 by beneficial bacteria in the intestines of animals, including humans, K2 is better absorbed than K1 and remains active far longer; K1 is cleared by the liver within 8 hours, but measurable levels of K2 have been detected 72 hours after ingestion. K2 is more potent and has the widest range of activity. Vitamin K 2 serves an important role in cardiovascular health through regulation of calcium homeostasis. government site. Do not consider WebMD Blogs as medical advice. 1. (More information) With limited vitamin K storage capacity, the body recycles vitamin K in the vitamin K oxidation - reduction cycle in order to reuse it multiple times. Both forms of vitamin K, K1 and K2, are essential in maintaining blood hemostasis and optimal bone and heart health through the role they play in inducing calcium use by proteins. Vitamin K status in healthy volunteers. Form definitely matters. . WebMD understands that reading individual, real-life experiences can be a helpful resource, but it is never a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment from a qualified health care provider. Doses of vitamin K1 up to 15 times the current recommended dietary allowance have successfully been used to reduce the percentage of undercarboxylated osteocalcin in the circulation. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. No effect of vitamin K1 intake on bone mineral density and fracture risk in perimenopausal women. 2020 Jul 19;18(7):373. doi: 10.3390/md18070373. [, Cockayne S, Adamson J, Lanham-New S, Shearer MJ, Gilbody S, Torgerson DJ. Like dietary lipids and other fat-soluble vitamins, ingested vitamin K is incorporated into mixed micelles via the action of bile and pancreatic enzymes, and it is absorbed by enterocytes of the small intestine [10]. The progression of coronary artery calcification in predialysis patients on calcium carbonate or sevelamer. Suboptimal Plasma Vitamin C Is Associated with Lower Bone Mineral Density in Young and Early Middle-Aged Men: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study. Rare Diseases: Are Solutions Already at Our Fingertips? Nutritional intake of vitamins K1 (phylloquinone) and K2 (menaquinone) in the Netherlands. This is due to the fact that vitamin D plays a role in the regulation of hormones that control the menstrual cycle [2]. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help The Synergistic Interplay between Vitamins D and K for Bone and Nutr., 98 (1 and transmitted securely. Abstract Supplementation with calcium (Ca) and/or vitamin D (vitD) is key to the management of osteoporosis. Menaquinones have unsaturated isoprenyl side chains and are designated as MK-4 through MK-13, based on the length of their side chain [1,2]. Blood 2007;109:3279-83. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews 2013;4:CD008482. Join the ODS Email List. Calcif Tissue Int 2012;90:396-403. Stoner L, Young JM, Fryer S. Assessments of arterial stiffness and endothelial function using pulse wave analysis. This is a fact sheet intended for health professionals. Booth SL, Al Rajabi A. Determinants of vitamin K status in humans. Major GC, Alarie F, Dor J, Phouttama S, Tremblay A. Supplementation with calcium + vitamin D enhances the beneficial effect of weight loss on plasma lipid and lipoprotein concentrations. An official website of the United States government. FOIA Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Earlier systematic reviews and meta-analyses found a positive relationship between calcium and vitamin D supplementation and increased BMD in older males and between higher calcium intakes from dietary sources or supplements in adults over 50 and higher BMD . One recent, double-blind, randomized clinical trial investigated the effects of supplemental MK-7, MenaQ7 (NattoPharma ASA, Hovik, Norway), within a 3-year period for a group of 244 postmenopausal Dutch women.54 The researchers found that a daily dose of 180 mcg was enough to improve bone mineral density, bone strength, and cardiovascular health. Cardiovascular disease is not just about cholesterol, which, if oxidized, can cause atherosclerosis, the formation of plaques on the innermost wall of the arteries. -. Orlistat is a weight-loss drug that is available as both an over-the-counter (Alli) and prescription (Xenical) medication. 2014;39:322350. They also showed that achieving a clinically relevant improvement required at least 2 years of supplementation. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. The purpose of this review is to summarize available evidence of the synergistic interplay between vitamins D and K on bone and cardiovascular health. Vitamin K helps to activate proteins that regulate Calcium deposition in our bones, while Calcium provides the building blocks for bone tissue. Based on phylloquinone measurements, the body retains only about 30% to 40% of an oral physiological dose, while about 20% is excreted in the urine and 40% to 50% in the feces via bile [2,11]. MK-4 is unique in that it is produced by the body from phylloquinone via a conversion process that does not involve bacterial action [7]. Vitamin K. Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that comes in two forms. In men younger than 35, calcification of the aorta increased risk of sudden coronary death 7-fold. Effect of vitamin D on all-cause mortality in heart failure (EVITA): a 3-year randomized clinical trial with 4000 IU vitamin D daily. 2022 Jun 2;13:864929. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.864929. Inadequate calcium intake can lead to decreased bone mineral density, which can increase the risk of bone fractures. Circulating nonphosphorylated carboxylated matrix gla protein predicts survival in ESRD. Vitamin K2: Everything You Need to Know - Healthline Vitamin K status should be monitored in people taking these medications, especially when the drugs are used for many years [47]. To prevent VKDB, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends the administration of a single, intramuscular dose of 0.5 to 1 milligram (mg) vitamin K1 at birth [24]. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. (Hart JP, Lancet 1984; Bitensky L, Hart JP et al, J Bone Surg Br 1988; Hodges SJ, Pilkington MJ, et al. Matrix Gla-protein, a vitamin K-dependent protein present in vascular smooth muscle, bone, and cartilage, is the focus of considerable scientific research because it might help reduce abnormal calcification [9]. Vitamin K deficiency can occur during the first few weeks of infancy due to low placental transfer of phylloquinone, low clotting factor levels, and low vitamin K content of breast milk [7]. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis: 2001 edition, with selected updates for 2003. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Its effects on the cardiovascular system are mediated through activation of the anti-calcific protein known as matrix Gla protein. [, Davidson MH, Hauptman J, DiGirolamo M, Foreyt JP, Halsted CH, Heber D, et al. Roles of Vitamins D and K, Nutrition, and Lifestyle in Low-Energy Bone Fractures in Children and Young Adults. -, Spiro A., Buttriss J. L. Vitamin D: an overview of vitamin D status and intake in Europe. Calcium, vitamin D, vitamin K2, and magnesium supplementation and Gholami H, Chmiel JA, Burton JP, Maleki Vareki S. Cancers (Basel). Vitamin K2 Vegan and calcium can be taken together to improve bone health and reduce the risk of heart disease. Indeed, a prospective cohort study of postmenopausal women from Iowa connected higher calcium intake to lower risk of death due to heart disease through the controlled supply of calcium in the blood.23 But most recently, several studies have cast doubt on the notion that more is better when it comes to calcium intake and prevention of cardiovascular disease.24. 5 Detrano R, Guerci AD, Carr JJ, Bild DE, Burke G, Folsom AR, Liu K, Shea S, Szklo M, Bluemke DA, et al. Theuwissen E, Smit E, Vermeer C. The role of vitamin K in soft-tissue calcification. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) developed DVs to help consumers compare the nutrient contents of foods and dietary supplements within the context of a total diet. 2009;63(Supplement 4):S226S238. European Food Safety Authority. It may be used to treat conditions caused by low calcium levels such as bone loss ( osteoporosis ), weak bones ( osteomalacia / rickets ), decreased activity of the parathyroid gland (. WebMD does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. [. The .gov means its official. Reid IR, Mason B, Horne A, et al. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. van Mierlo LA, Arends LR, Streppel MT, et al. Vitamins D and K Work as a Team When it comes to calcium metabolism,. Studies have shown that taking Vitamin K supplements can improve bone density and reduce the risk of fractures in older adults. Existing elastin is damaged and new production is inhibited by calcium deposition. eCollection 2023 Mar. Calcium, Nutrition, and Bone Health - OrthoInfo - AAOS The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) FoodData Central [16] lists the nutrient content of many foods and provides comprehensive lists of foods containing vitamin K (phylloquinone) arranged by nutrient content and by food name, and of foods containing vitamin K (MK-4) arranged by nutrient content and food name. The relationship between serum vitamin K concentration and coronary artery calcification in middle-aged and elderly people. J Clin Densitom. Pediatrics 2003;112:191-2. Several food sources of vitamin K are listed in Table 2. Vascular calcification is one of the risk factors for coronary heart disease because it reduces aortic and arterial elasticity [40]. The molecular basis of blood coagulation. Vitamin K can have a serious and potentially dangerous interaction with anticoagulants such as warfarin (Coumadin), as well as phenprocoumon, acenocoumarol, and tioclomarol, which are commonly used in some European countries [7,8]. Careers. Calcium intake and fracture risk: Results from the study of osteoporotic fractures. Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: the Rotterdam Study. Huenerfauth EI, Molnr V, Rosati M, Ciurkiewicz M, Sbbeler FJ, Harms O, Hildebrandt R, Baumgrtner W, Tipold A, Volk HA, Nessler J. Epub 2017 Jul 10. The SMD was 0.20 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.07 to 0.32]. Vitamin K2 activates a protein called matrix GLA which removes calcium from soft tissues and it also activates osteocalcin, which holds calcium to bone. JAMA 2000), In other research involving more than 100,000 men and women in California, aortic calcification increased risk of coronary heart disease 127% in men and 122% in women. The other type, menaquinones, are found in some animal foods and fermented foods. Vitamins and Calcium Supplements: Types & Health Benefits - MedicineNet Vitamin K actually has a protective effect on . Raffield LM, Agarwal S, Hsu FC, de Boer IH, Ix JH, Siscovick D, Szklo M, Burke GL, Frazier-Wood AC, Herrington DM. Calcium relies on vitamin D for absorption, and so it's not uncommon to see calcium supplements containing vitamin D as well. The following groups are among those most likely to have inadequate vitamin K status. Among women, it also increased risk of stroke 146%. [, Sadowski JA, Hood SJ, Dallal GE, Garry PJ. (Kaneki M, Takayuki H, et al., Nutrition 2006; Demer LL, Tintut Y et al, Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2002), K2 also helps promote blood vessel elasticity by safeguarding elastin, the core protein in the muscle fibers primarily responsible for the elasticity of the arterial wall. Menaquinone intake was also inversely associated with severe aortic calcification in a prospective, population-based cohort study involving 4,807 men and women aged 55 years and older from the Netherlands [41]. As long as the bone-forming activity (ie, absorption) is greater than the breakdown of bone (ie, resorption), the process of maintaining a healthy bone structure is maintained. Diet. The researchers found that men, but not women, taking more than 1000 mg/day of calcium supplements had a risk of total cardiovascular death that was 20% higher than that of participants taking no calcium supplements. A study on 564 postmenopausal women also revealed that intake of vitamin K2 was associated with decreased coronary calcification, whereas intake of vitamin K1 was not.9. Simplified overview of potential synergy, Simplified overview of potential synergy between vitamins D and K and bone and, MeSH Includes a variety of protein foods such as lean meats; poultry; eggs; seafood; beans, peas, and lentils; nuts and seeds; and soy products. eCollection 2022. See this image and copyright information in PMC. Fujita Y, Iki M, Tamaki J, Kouda K, Yura A, Kadowaki E, Sato Y, Moon JS, Tomioka K, Okamoto N, Kurumatani N. Osteoporos Int. Phylloquinone in plant foods is tightly bound to chloroplasts, so it is less bioavailable than that from oils or dietary supplements [1]. Dietary vitamin K intakes are associated with hip fracture but not with bone mineral density in elderly men and women. (Iwamoto J, Takeda T, et al. The .gov means its official. Vitamin K supplementation and progression of coronary artery calcium in older men and women. Some of these opinions may contain information about treatments or uses of drug products that have not been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Author links open overlay panel Cheng Xu a, . PMC Otherwise, orlistat does not usually have a clinically significant effect on vitamin K status, although clinicians usually recommend that patients taking orlistat take a multivitamin supplement containing vitamin K [49-51]. Vitamin K deficiency is only considered clinically relevant when prothrombin time increases significantly due to a decrease in the prothrombin activity of blood [3,7]. Carboxylation activates these proteins, which have widespread effects throughout the body, including regulating blood clotting and calcium. (Seyama Y, Wachi H. J Athero Thromb), In the Rotterdam study, a major European clinical trial following 4,807 subjects aged at least 55 over a 7-10 year period, researchers found that K2, but not K1, significantly reduced risk of cardiovascular disease by 57%, death from all causes by 26%, and severe aortic calcification by 52%. In both the vitamin D and the placebo group, the elasticity of the common carotid artery decreased, while in those given K along with D, elasticity was maintained. Bone 1991; Booth SL, Tucker KL, et al. Vitamin K - Keeping Calcium in Your Bones and Out of Your - WebMD Disclaimer. MK-4 supplementation significantly reduced rates of hip fractures, vertebral fractures, and all nonvertebral fractures. Hou Y, Carne A, McConnell M, Mros S, Vasileva EA, Mishchenko NP, Burrow K, Wang K, Bekhit AA, Bekhit AEA. [, MacWalter RS, Fraser HW, Armstrong KM. Think of parking attendants at large events; they tell you where to put your car. J. Clin. 2017 Jul;36(5):399-412. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2017.1307791. Seely S. Is calcium excess in western diet a major cause of arterial disease? Nutrients. However, vitamin K deficiency results in inadequate activation of MGP, which greatly impairs the process of calcium removal and increases the risk of calcification of the blood vessels.4852 Because that calcification occurs in the vessel walls, it leads to thickening of the wall via calcified plaques (ie, to the typical progression of atherosclerosis), which is associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular events. Despite these data, few trials have investigated the effects of vitamin K supplementation on arterial calcification or coronary heart disease risk. At the end of the study, participants receiving either phylloquinone or MK-4 had significantly lower levels of undercarboxylated osteocalcin compared to those receiving placebo. According to the National Academy of Science Food and Nutrition Board, the dietary . Vitamins D and K are both fat-soluble vitamins and play a central role in calcium metabolism. [, Geleijnse JM, Vermeer C, Grobbee DE, Schurgers LJ, Knapen MH, van der Meer IM, et al. The authors noted the importance of considering the effect of vitamin D on bone health when comparing the results of vitamin K supplementation studies, especially if both vitamin K and vitamin D (and/or calcium) are administered to the treatment group but not the placebo group [38]. While they are independently important, they also can impact levels of other electrolytes in the body. [, Shearer MJ, Fu X, Booth SL. Combined vitamin K with vitamin D plus calcium was associated with a modest but significant increase in BMC at the ultradistal radius but not at other sites in the hip or radius. Berkner KL, Runge KW. Effect of calcium-based versus non-calcium-based phosphate binders on mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Prothrombin (clotting factor II) is a vitamin K-dependent protein in plasma that is directly involved in blood clotting. Menaquinones can also be produced by bacteria in the human body. Smart Grocery Shopping When You Have Diabetes, Surprising Things You Didn't Know About Dogs and Cats, Fat Growing Around Muscles Could Be a Silent Killer, Chronic Pain More Common Than Many Top Illnesses, Vitamin D Supplements May Help Ease Long COVID, Black Americans Face Much Higher Rates of Early Death, New Book: Take Control of Your Heart Disease Risk. (Think of carboxylation as adding a trailer hitch to calcium, allowing it to be towed into and attached to bone.) This is because vitamin K triggers a protein called osteocalcin to get to work. The absorption rate of phylloquinone in its free form is approximately 80%, but its absorption rate from foods is significantly lower [2]. Ditscheid B, Keller S, Jahreis G. Cholesterol metabolism is affected by calcium phosphate supplementation in humans. Bone is composed of a hard outer shell and a spongy matrix of inner tissues and is a living substance. 2017;38(29):22792286. The main type is called phylloquinone, found in green leafy vegetables like collard greens, kale, and spinach. Li K, Kaaks R, Linseisen J, Rohrmann S. Associations of dietary calcium intake and calcium supplementation with myocardial infarction and stroke risk and overall cardiovascular mortality in the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study (EPIC-Heidelberg). 2010 Aug;66(4):370-80. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2010.06.003. Furie B, Furie BC. Vitamin K refers to a group of fat-soluble compounds. (Geleijnse JM, Vermeer C, et al. Several forms of vitamin K are used in dietary supplements, including vitamin K1 as phylloquinone or phytonadione (a synthetic form of vitamin K1) and vitamin K2 as MK-4 or MK-7 [18]. In its inactive form, this protein is associated with various markers of cardiovascular disease including increased arterial stiffness, vascular and valvular . -, Adams J. S., Rafison B., Witzel S., et al. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehx235. Introduction "Vitamin K," the generic name for a family of compounds with a common chemical structure of 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, is a fat-soluble vitamin that is naturally present in some foods and is available as a dietary supplement [ 1 ].
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