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They may or may not be biodegradable and some are only partially biobased, that is they contain both renewable and fossil-fuel-based carbon. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00407-8, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00407-8. The use of toxic phosgene and potentially carcinogenic isocyanate monomers have raised health concerns during the life cycle of traditional polyurethanes138. Current situation and global perspective. Polymer 87, 148158 (2016). Bioplastics | Plastics Industry Association Packaging is considered the greatest source of waste globally, with 146 million tonnes produced in 2015, of which 141 million tonnes went unrecycled (96.6%). Koch, D. & Mihalyi, B. Assessing the change in environmental impact categories when replacing conventional plastic with bioplastic in chosen application fields. Indeed, Total Corbion PLA has recently announced that PLA-coated paper cups are repulpable and, thus, recyclable, whereas traditionally PE-coated paper cups are not103. European Commission www.europarc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Eu-plastics-strategy-brochure.pdf (2018). The WEF, together with the Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey & Company, is promoting science-based policy initiatives for a circular plastics economy2. Science 368, 11401145 (2020). J. Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2017 Fact Sheet (EPA, 2019). Although this Review focuses largely on synthetic bioplastics, the extraction of polymers directly from biomass is a simple and often cost-effective method. Briassoulis, D., Hiskakis, M. & Babou, E. Technical specifications for mechanical recycling of agricultural plastic waste. 298, 122393 (2020). Starches, which constitute a considerable portion of food waste, are the main material used for non-synthetic starch-based bioplastics, produced by direct processing of the starch into films163. Pudack, C., Stepanski, M. & Fssler, P. PET recycling Contributions of crystallization to sustainability. The financial investments would be well justified, as chemical recycling is estimated to achieve global profits of $55 billion per year57. 55, 865875 (2011). As a result, Chinese manufacturers plan to dramatically increase PLA production to 700,000 tonnes per year and combined PBAT and PBS output to 1.24 million tonnes per year by 2023 (ref.245). Liu, X., Gao, C., Sangwan, P., Yu, L. & Tong, Z. Today, the commercial production of PHA has seen a revival, with companies such as Danimer Scientific (USA) and RWDC Industries (USA and Singapore) scaling up in light of confirmed contracts in the packaging and fast-moving consumer goods sectors106. 4. Energy Res. 15, 237241 (2019). Natl Acad. Sci. Although most commercial plastics are made from fossil resources, these materials can also be made from renewable resources and are commonly referred to as bioplastics. Jambeck, J. et al. Tabuchi, H. & Choi-Schagrin, W. California Aims to Ban Recycling Symbols on Things That Arent Recyclable (New York Times, 2021). J. Anal. Educating consumers and companies towards life cycle thinking will encourage a holistic view on plastic products beyond their obvious impacts associated with the use and disposal of plastics. Financial incentives and lack of regulations have enabled fracking and shale gas in the USA, making plastic based on these fossil feedstocks cheap and competitive with renewable materials250,251. Fourteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention Meeting Documents 1123 (United Nations, 2019). Plastic made from cane sugar also threatens the environment. Although some studies suggest that it is possible to sustainably co-produce biomass for both food and fuel (and, thus, also for bio-based materials)67,68, first-generation biomass remains controversial, owing to ethical concerns about the potential competition with food resources, especially in local settings46. PlasticsEurope. A new generation of furanic copolyesters with enhanced degradability: poly(ethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate)-co-poly(lactic acid) copolyesters. Polym. Opin. Biodegradable plastic made from cane sugar instead of fossil fuels has been shown to have negative impacts on ocean life, University of Gothenburg researchers have said. Biodegradable plastics biodegrade in certain conditions at their end of life. Deutsche Umwelthilfe. When switching to a more sustainable plastic replacement in the same application, companies are faced with a balancing act between conserving the same functionality, ideally at similar cost, and the requirements of a life cycle assessment to prove that the alternative is more environmentally friendly than the incumbent material6,19. As of 2020, the total global production capacity of bioplastics was 2.11 million metric tons, and it is forecast to continue growing year-over-year, up to 2.87 million metric tons by 2025 . Hann, S. et al. Sustainability benefits and trade-offs must be elucidated from life cycle assessments that scrutinize all steps along the fossil-based and bio-based plastic life cycles, from feedstock harvesting, through various processing steps to end-of-life scenarios6,13,172. Although use of renewable resources can reduce carbon emissions, other factors along the life cycle can offset these benefits. Mechanical recycling of bioplastics is generally not yet commercially available, but re-extrusion has been performed in the literature. Adv. Sustainable production of bio-based chemicals and polymers via integrated biomass refining and bioprocessing in a circular bioeconomy context. Smith, P.) Vol. Rev. Sci. Kricheldorf, H. R. & Lubbers, D. Polyanhydrides. A melt-extruded PCL (polycaprolactone) plastic filament (left) with embedded nanoclusters of the enzyme lipase enshrouded with RHP degraded nearly completely into small molecules within 36 hours in warm (104 F) water. Many LCAs focus on carbon emissions in cradle-to-gate scenarios, often for lack of reliable data on EOL scenarios. Control. Conversely, petrochemical plastic capacities are growing, with more than 300 new industrial projects (with a value of more than US$200 billion) announced since 2010 in the USA alone, of which about half are in the construction or completion stages. Chem. 15, 749754 (1993). Indeed, the pandemic has gravely accentuated the inability of existing waste management systems to cope with surging amounts of potentially hazardous plastic waste42. Singh, A. K., Sharma, L., Mallick, N. & Mala, J. Mater. PLOS ONE , 2023; 18 (5): e0284681 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0284681 A study published Wednesday in PLOS ONE demonstrates how a popular bioplastic advertised as biodegradable does not actually break down in the ocean. Characteristics and potential of micro algal cultivation strategies: a review. Critical aspects in the life cycle assessment (LCA) of bio-based materialsreviewing methodologies and deriving recommendations. Commun. 201, 261269 (2003). Report of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal on the Work of its Fourteenth Meeting. . Sixth assessment report. The US-based How2Recycle label aims to provide more information on the recyclability of individual packaging parts. Gene-editing technologies such as CRISPRCas9 can potentially be used to guide the type and properties of PHA that is produced; these tools can also tune metabolic pathways to increase cell size, increase PHA yields and increase resilience to stress to improve production efficiencies, which can consequently decrease production cost and enable the application of PHAs in a wider range of commercial products121,122. Product quality is, therefore, highly dependent on input quality and, thus, mechanical recycling ideally requires well-sorted and contamination-free plastic waste, which is often scarce. Packaging also tends to have the shortest working life out of all industrial plastic sectors3. Appl. Shen, L., Worrell, E. & Patel, M. K. Open-loop recycling: A LCA case study of PET bottle-to-fibre recycling. Food Sci. It is important to understand the basis for these certifications and also who the agencies behind them are. Global Fossil Fuel Subsidies Remain Large: An Update Based on Country-Level Estimates. Cellulose is biodegradable167, yet regenerated cellulose, which is popular as viscose or rayon textile fibres, constitutes 60% of sea-bed microplastics31. Yet, all aspects must be addressed to comply with upcoming regulations, extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes and certification rules16,187. Rev. Furthermore, the complex and multimaterial design of plastic products typically prohibits recycling, which is why accounting for recyclability and simplicity in product design can greatly increase recycling rates. & Driscoll, S. K. Microplastics as vectors for bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic chemicals in the marine environment: a state-of-the-science review. A., Amulya, K., Butti, S. K. & Velvizhi, G. A circular bioeconomy with biobased products from CO2 sequestration. Biodegradation is no silver bullet to curb plastic pollution and typically ranks as the least desired fate of bioplastics, especially in anaerobic landfill scenarios without gas capture. For both plastics, biodegradation starts with oxidation and hydrolysis, followed by a biological process. What Are Bioplastics? Overview and Impacts - Treehugger Strong and elastic, yet degradable: protein-based bioplastics EOL, end of life. Environ. The home compost label (panel k of the figure) has seen increased use but is not based on a legislative standard. Aliphatic esters can be readily hydrolysed, but aromatic polyesters are typically resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis. Chemical recycling is performed mainly through solvolysis or thermolysis. 72, 726731 (2006). Int. Article The Alliance to End Plastic Waste, which comprises major chemical companies, brand owners and smaller sustainability-focused entities, has promised to spend a total of $1.5 billion for projects related to sustainable plastic. Polym. Polysaccharides can be extracted from plant biomass and converted chemically into plasticized starch and cellulose-based products13,163,165. Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General. Such levels would account for 1015% of the estimated global carbon budget of CO2 output to keep global warming below 2C, which is the goal stated in the UN Paris Agreement of 2015 (refs2,45,47,49,50). J. Polym. Not so biodegradable: Polylactic acid and cellulose/plastic blend textiles lack fast biodegradation in marine waters. 116th US Congress 1127 (US Congress, 2020). Total Environ. Chem. RSC Adv. Bioplastic | Definition & Facts | Britannica Int. CAS Effects of GLIADEL wafer initial molecular weight on the erosion of wafer and release of BCNU. PLA is typically made through the polycondensation of lactic acid97, which can be derived from the fermentation of sugars, or through the ring-opening polymerization of lactide, the cyclic dimer of lactic acid100,101,102. The US Department of Agricultures BioPreferred program issues a label based on third-party analysis (panel g of the figure) and, in Japan, labels are issued by the Japan BioPlastics Association (JBPA). 66, 319326 (2018). Yamada, S. & Fukumoto, Y. The line of Terratek Flex the market's first biodegradable elastomer bioplastics is a good example of a biodegradable plastic which is not fully bio-based. Jarerat, A., Tokiwa, Y. Zhu, Y., Romain, C. & Williams, C. K. Sustainable polymers from renewable resources. 116, 16371669 (2016). Choi, A. In a circular plastic economy (green arrows), plastic waste becomes raw material for a recycling process at its end of life, and all production and recycling processes are supplied with renewable energy21,47,62. Effect of oil palm sustainability certification on deforestation and fire in Indonesia. The companies producing these materials have announced scale-up plans on the order of 60kt and 75kt in the coming years, respectively233,234. Sci. [2] React. Nat. Ben Halima, N. Poly(vinyl alcohol): review of its promising applications and insights into biodegradation. Yet, as the UN Secretary-General Antnio Guterres has stated, pandemic recovery is our chance to change course, through policies and investments in sustainable technologies43. In 2019, 187 UN member nations amended the directives of the 1989 Basel Convention on global hazardous materials shipping and trade to include plastic waste, adding new transparency and regulatory requirements27. In this case, the monomers are extracted or synthesized from biomass compounds (such as sugars in plants) and then polymerized to either make a direct replacement for an existing plastic, such as polyethylene (PE), or novel polymers, such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). The authors thank R. Mlhaupt, E. Olivetti, G. Storti, G. W. Liu, S. Srinivasan, A. Kirtane and A. Lopes for discussions related to this body of work. Progress and challenges in producing polyhydroxyalkanoate biopolymers from cyanobacteria. Only 10% of CH4 produced in landfills was estimated to be captured globally in 2006, which is an approach that offers potential for energy recovery while benefitting the climate and public health227,228. 301, 944952 (2016). Environ. The Truth About Bioplastics - State of the Planet & Vanthournout, H. No Time to Waste: What Plastics Recycling Could Offer. Biden Administration. Stagner, J. Methane generation from anaerobic digestion of biodegradable plasticsa review. Hees, T., Zhong, F., Strzel, M. & Mlhaupt, R. Tailoring hydrocarbon polymers and all-hydrocarbon composites for circular economy.

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