phrase structure rules of scottish gaelicphrase structure rules of scottish gaelic

phrase structure rules of scottish gaelic28 May phrase structure rules of scottish gaelic

The theme can also be an entity (The ball) that is simply being described (i.e. For example: Youll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isnt here today. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. Welsh, Languages written with the Latin alphabet. )TIME FLIES LIKE AN ARROW; FRUIT FLIES LIKE ABANANA Different underlying structures in Oettingers (1966: 168) example can be seen in Figure 8.10. (7) *Dog followed boy. There are also some Gaelic programmes on other channels. Manage Settings (2) Who would you want to or wanna go out with? although the existence of a common written Classical Gaelic concealed (6) *I didnt have a pen so Anne gave one. are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another as they believed fluency in English was more important. If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Scotia were forbidden from speaking Gaelic in schools. help cuideachadh. Whole word only Type a word or phrase into the box above. If you dont actually have that social power (e.g. {can, could, should, will, would}V ! (8) Well never have progress as long as the greybeards remain in control. (6) She was wearing a white cotton blouse with a short green skirt. (In older Gaelic bu was written and pronounced budh) used as a decorative script. As a general rule, words are spelled as they are pronounced in Scottish Gaelic. How do Scottish say goodbye? - LookWhatMomFound And, gairm (Irish) and ghairm (Scottish Gaelic) both mean calling. (2) Well leave if you want. It is the type of meaning that dictionaries are designed to describe. How many examples were included in this chapter? Alongside constructions involving synthetic verb forms, analytic (or 'periphrastic') aspectual constructions are extremely frequently used and in many cases are obligatory (compare English "be + -ing" and Spanish "estar + -Vndo" verbal constructions). The head of a company is similar to the head of a person on top of and controlling the body. (10) *Helped George the dog. novels, collections of poetry, biographies, and other books [source]. ', 'the man who stopped the dog that bit the cat that killed the mouse.'. Nouns can be classified into a number of major declension classes, with a small number of nouns falling into minor patterns or irregular paradigms. S ! (b) waiter: The ham sandwich left without paying. Clausal negation is marked by the particles cha(n) and nach. Often the tha construction is used when someone has just become a soldier, for example, while the is construction shows that being a soldier is a part of Ian's persona. In asking this question, the speaker presupposes that you used to smoke and that you no longer do so. and Prince Edward Island. For example, we might say informally that, in English, we put a preposition (near) before a noun (London) to form a prepositional phrase (near London). The actual realization of the capitalised forms in the paradigm above depends on the initial sound of the following word, as explained in the following tables: Putting all of those variants together into one table: The forms of the definite article trace back to a Common Celtic stem *sindo-, sind-. This process is known as "lenition" and involves the addition (1) *I thought I had lost my sunglasses, but Ali found in his car. C, p and t are pre-aspirated Part of the problem seems to bethat the approach involves a view of words in a language as some sort of containersthat carry meaning components. (1994) Grammar: A Students Guide Cambridge University Press Kroeger, P. (2005) Analyzing Grammar: An Introduction Cambridge University Press Grammatical terms Peters, P. (2013) The Cambridge Dictionary of English Grammar Cambridge University Press On the prescriptive approach Cameron, D. (1995) Verbal Hygiene Routledge Pullum, G. (2009) 50 years of stupid grammar advice The Chronicle of Higher Education: The Chronicle Review 55 (32): B15. If two words are treated as homonyms, they willtypically have two separate entries. Cumbric, In the sentences The boy cut the rope with an old razor and He drew the picture with a crayon, the noun phrases an old razor and a crayon are being used in the semantic role of instrument. If you are interested in studying Scottish Gaelic further, here are some useful resources. Another culture might avoid the danger of conict by adopting a strategy of deferential politeness. Other examples of poly-semy are foot (of a person, of a bed, of a mountain), mouth (part of a face, a cave, ariver) or run (person does, water does, colors do). (4) I always have a cup of green tea to start my day. (5) Ill have some fruit juice occasionally. Learn how and when to remove this template message, Celtic languages#Characteristics of Celtic languages, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_Gaelic_grammar&oldid=1094455812, Articles lacking in-text citations from May 2010, Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup and no ISO hint, Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup from November 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009, Articles containing Old Irish (to 900)-language text, Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text, Articles containing Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, (used in: fem. We can then look at similar descriptions of sentences in other languages such as Gaelic, Japanese or Spanish and see clearly what structural differences exist. If you say table, theyll mostly say chair, and butter elicits bread, needle elicits thread and salt elicits pepper. We can also say that two or more wordsthat share the same superordinate term are co-hyponyms. We can then predict which nouns (e.g. Scottish Gaelic-Dictionary Online Translation LEXILOGOS After looking at the types of verbs (e.g. S SNP VP NP VP V PP V NPTime flies like an arrow fruit flies like a bananaFigure 8.10108 The Study of Language FURTHER READING Basic treatments Miller, J. "Am I at speaking"). Celtic cognates | (6) *Fhuair Mairi an cu ban. A generative grammar When we have an effective rule such as a prepositional phrase in English consists of a preposition followed by a noun phrase, we can imagine an extremely large number of English phrases that could be produced using this rule. Dl Riata. The connection between antecedents and anaphoric expres- sions is often based on inference, as in these examples: We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very small. C What is aspect? Do you think that the word with the highest score would indicate the prototype?bowl atware ladle soup spooncrockery fork mug spooncup glass plate teaspooncutlery glassware platter tumblerdish knife saucer wineglass(For background reading, see chapter 1 of Ungerer and Schmid, 2006. in Scotland, however it is not certain what language they are in. (2011) Semantics (3rd edition) Wiley-Blackwell Conceptual and associative meaning Aitchison, J. There are different kinds of context. In the appropriate circumstances, we can say, What was his answer? So, dog and horse areco-hyponyms and the superordinate term is animal. (a) The pen is mightier than the sword. An athletic event, from the Gaelic word "cabar" which refers to a wooden pole. We can use a similar tree diagram to represent the structure of an English verbphrase (VP), as shown in Figure 8.2.Tree diagram of an English sentenceWe can now put together the structure of a whole sentence, hierarchically organ-ized, as shown below in Figure 8.3. Where distance politeness more or less assumes equality between participants, deference works by debasing one or both. These periphrastic forms in Irish have retained their use of showing continuous aspect. Phrase: Ciamar a tha sibh?Pronunciation: Kimmer a ha shiv? This small and nite set of rules is sometimes described as a generative grammar because it can be used to generate or produce sentence structures and not just describe them. ", Is ann a toirt an leabhair do Anna a bha Iain, is in-it at giving-VN the book-GEN to Anna REL was Ian, "It was giving the book to Anna that Ian was.". We use metonymy when we talk about lling up the car, answering the door, boiling a kettle, giving someone a hand or needing some wheels. This approach is used in the semantic description of language and treated as the analysis of lexical relations. http://www.scottishradiance.com/galsec.htm, Breton, It is also possible to use tha to describe a noun or pronoun with a nominal complement by using an embedded pronoun (MacAulay, page 179): is Ian {in.3SG.MASC.PN (in-his; for convenience)} soldier. 88 The Study of LanguageS NP NP V Art N Art N Adj [Chunnaic] [an] [gille] [an] [cu] [dubh]Figure 7.6One obvious difference between the structure of this Gaelic sentence and its Englishcounterpart is the fact that the verb comes rst in the sentence. (For background reading, see chapter 3 of Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams, 2014.) limited) set of rules that will be capable of producing a large and potentially innite (i.e. nom. The fronting use of is is part of its general function of ascribing descriptions to a complement (see below). There is another type of relationship between words, based simply on a close connection in everyday experience. (1) Jakku-ga gakkoo-e ikimasu goJack school to(Jack goes to school)(2) Kazuko-ga gakkoo-de eigo-o naratte imasu beKazuko school at English learn(Kazuko is learning English at school)(3) Masuda-ga tegami-o kakimasuMasuda letter write(Masuda writes a letter)(4) Jon-ga shinbun-o yomimasu John newspaper read (John reads a newspaper)H The sample sentences below are from (i) Latin and (ii) Amuzgo, a language of Mexico (adapted from Merrield et al., 2003).1 Using what you have learned about Latin, carefully translate this sentence: The doves love the small girl.2 How would you write A big woman is reading the red book in Amuzgo?3 In terms of basic sentence order, which of these languages is most similar to Amuzgo: English, Gaelic, Japanese or Latin?92 The Study of Language (i) Latin The girls carry the eagles puellae aquilas portant The women love the doves feminae columbas amant The girl saves the eagle puella aquilam salvat The woman frees the small eagle femina parvam aquilam liberat The big eagle ghts the small dove magna aquila parvam columbam pugnat (ii) Amuzgo The boy is reading a book maceina tyocho kwi com The men are building a house kwila yonom kwi waa The woman will buy a red book nnceihnda yusku kwi com we The men are making three tables kwila yonom ndee meisa A boy is reading the big book maceina kwi tyocho com tmaDISCUSSION TOPICS/PROJECTSI In this chapter, we briey mentioned the grammatical category of tense and illustrated the difference between past tense (loved) and present tense (loves). 4 What was wrong with the older Latin-inuenced denition of English pronouns? An example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie. However, the boy was using the word to refer to something the tourists didn't expect, hence the initial misunderstanding. However since then, the number has declined for a variety of Quite simply, the kind of noun used with ate must denote an entity that is capable of eating. The noun hamburger doesnt have this property and the noun boy does. "The dish-cloot matches a pretty face." "Awa' a bile yer heid," says the narrator. A rough equivalent to the latter would be 'John is able to eat' for 'I can eat'. (1992). & dat. For example, Furniture Sale might have the structure: someone is selling furniture. Would the same structure be appropriate for Garage Sale and the others?Back-to-School Sale Dollar Sale One Cent SaleBake Sale Foundation Sale Plant SaleBig Screen Sale Furniture Sale Sidewalk SaleClearance Sale Garage Sale Spring SaleClose-out Sale Labor Day Sale Tent SaleColorful White Sale Liquidation Sale Yard SaleG Deictic expressions are not the only examples of vague language that require a pragmatic interpretation. We could then propose that, for every single sentence in English, a tree diagram of this type could be drawn. In traditional grammar, the rst is called an active sentence, focusing on what Charlie did, and the second is a passive sentence, focusing on The window and what happened to it. Synonymy Two or more words with very closely related meanings are called synonyms. Family words | However, having exploredsome of the basic issues, terminology, and methods of syntactic analysis in order totalk about structure in language, we need to move on to consider how we mightincorporate the analysis of meaning in the study of language.Syntax 103STUDY QUESTIONS1 What is wrong with the following rule of English syntactic structure? A collection of Gaelic proverbs, and familiar phrases with an English translation, by Donald MacIntosh (1785) Scottish land-names, their origin and meaning, by Herbert Maxwell (1894) The Gaelic topography of Scotland by James Robertson (1869) and Brythonic languages in much of Scotland, and by the early 11th century {Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN}? Based on these rules, which of the following sentences (1)(10) should have an asterisk * before them?S NP VP N {oge, ika, amu}NP N (Art) Art yeVP V NP V {xa, vo}(1) Oge xa ika (6) Vo oge ika(2) Ye amu vo oge (7) Amu ye vo ika(3) Ika oge xa ye (8) Ye ika xa ye oge(4) Oge ye vo ika ye (9) Xa amu ye(5) Amu xa oge (10) Oge ye xa amuSyntax 105F Using these simple phrase structure rules for Scottish Gaelic, identify (with *) the ungrammatical sentences below and draw tree diagrams for the grammatical sentences.S V NP NP NP {Art N (Adj), PN}Art anN {cu, duine, gille} Adj {ban, beag, mor}PN {Calum, Mairi, Tearlach} V {bhuail, chunnaic, fhuair} (1) Calum chunnaic an gille. Learning Scottish Gaelic could improve your visit to Scotland. If you are asked Why did you arrive late?, there is a presupposition that you did arrive late. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Gaelic If someone says, I used to regret marrying him, but I dont regret marrying him now, the presupposition (I married him) remains constant even though the verb regret changes from afrmative to negative.Speech actsWe have been considering ways in which we interpret the meaning of an utterance interms of what the speaker intended to convey. Ive eaten lunch already, thanks. The pronunciation is especially useful. What kind of language do you think is characteristic of these different types of politeness? The tha example maintains VSO/VSC word order, where the complement is a prepositional phrase that states what state the subject is in (in the state of being a soldier); cf. Key to abbreviations: inf = informal, frm = formal, sg = (6) Was the guy who scored the winning goal in the nal playing for love or money? Distancing cultures weave remoteness into their language. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic Though the language has declined in use in the mainland in the past several hundred years, it has survived in the islands and efforts are being made to preserve it. spoken mainly in Scotland, and also in Nova Scotia in Canada. A collection of useful phrases in Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic language Most commonly one will see classificatory or adjectival complements, as shown below: Historically called the substantive verb, tha (the present indicative independent 3rd person singular form of bi) can be used in constructions with adjectival complements, locative predicates, and in aspectually marked sentences (MacAulay, page 180). If the word bank is used with other words like steep or overgrown, we have no problem deciding which type of bank is meant.128 The Study of Language Or, when someone says that she has to get to the bank to withdraw some cash, the co- text tells us which type of bank is intended. In English, italics (for text) and stress (for speech) are used to emphasize different elements of a sentence; one can also change the word order to put the emphasized element first. . he drank the liquid, not the glass object). It has two distinct underlying interpretations that have to be represented differently in deep structure. According to phrase structure rules for Scottish Gaelic: According Access to over 100 million course-specific study resources, 24/7 help from Expert Tutors on 140+ subjects, Full access to over 1 million Textbook Solutions. )PN ! Kawasaki example, a successful act of reference depends more on thelistener/readers ability to recognize what the speaker/writer means than on thelisteners dictionary knowledge of a word that is used. This can be used when speaking to friends or to children. Should Mary follow you?Could the boy see it? Bu tu an gaisgeach! Why Nature is at the Heart of the Scottish Gaelic Language Inglis, which by then was known as Scots, became the official language NP VPNP ! consonants are given in the first line below them, and the slender sing. The words date ( a thing wecan eat) and date ( a point in time) are homonyms. epdf.tips_the-study-of-language-5th-edition. To view the purposes they believe they have legitimate interest for, or to object to this data processing use the vendor list link below. In the rst example, we must make an inference like if X is a house, then X has a kitchen in order to interpret the connection between antecedent a house and ana- phoric expression the kitchen. ), are generally more polite in our society than direct speech acts (Open that door for me!). Some common examples arethe pairs:alive/dead big/small enter/exit fast/slow happy/sad hot/coldlong/short male/female married/single old/new rich/poor true/falseAntonyms are usually divided into two main types, gradable (opposites along ascale) and non-gradable (direct opposites). According to phrase structure rules for Scottish Gaelic: According to the rules above,only two of the following sentences would be considered well-formed. In most cases the Classical Gaelic lenited form of tu, i.e. {it, you}V ! (11) *You it saw. In the genitive construction, the genitive follows the word it governs: taigh m' athar house my father (genitive) "my father's house". l [l] "drink": dh'l mi [l mi] "I drank" An indirect speech act, in the form associated with a question (Could you pass me that paper? Though almost everyone in Scotland can speak English, Gaelic is taught as a subject in some schools and remains spoken by around 50,000 people today. I got on a bus and asked the driver if it went near the downtown area. These adverbs demonstrate a good deal of flexibility in term of word order in the clause. Cuiridh tu an-seo e! Case forms can be related to the base form by suffixation, lenition, slenderisation, or a combination of such changes. The pronunciation guide isn't perfect, but I got it as close to possible. In the sentence The boy feels sad, the experiencer (The boy) is the only semantic role. Of course, we resist this possible interpretation and recognize instead that it is advertising a sale of clothes for those young children. 32,400 could undertand, speak, Art (Adj) N This shorthand notation expresses the idea that a noun phrase (NP) rewrites as (!) (Maybe they will be more cheerful.) You cancheck Figure 9.1 to see if your meaning included hyponymy. (2) Is Shaggy tired? The verbal noun covers many of the same notions as infinitives, gerunds and present participles in other Indo-European languages. Some sentences of English are virtually impossible to understand if we dont know who is speaking, about whom, where and when. There are also small Gaelic-speaking Person deixis: me, you, him, her, us, them, that woman, those idiots Spatial deixis: here, there, beside you, near that, above your head Temporal deixis: now, then, last week, later, tomorrow, yesterday All these deictic expressions have to be interpreted in terms of which person, place or time the speaker has in mind. (5) They were about to leave when I got there. (2012) Syntax (3rd edition) Wiley-Blackwell On Gaelic syntax Brown, K. and J. Miller (1991) Syntax: A Linguistic Introduction to Sentence Structure (2nd edition) Routledge Other references Fromkin, V., R. Rodman and N. Hyams (2014) An Introduction to Language (10th edition) Wadsworth Sudlow, D. (2001) The Tamasheq of North-East Burkina Faso R. Koppe VerlagCHAPTER 9 Semantics This one time I was ying out of SFO (San Francisco) and I happened to have a jar of home-made quince preserves in my carry-on. Knowledge. Welsh, the Latin letters are shown below. 25 Useful Phrases and Vocabulary in Scottish Gaelic - Owlcation byrecognizing the homonymy in the answer: Because of their bark. Scottish Gaelic is a wonderful language that will hopefully withstand the test of time and be taught properly in Scotland. )to people whose culture is more oriented to indirectness and avoiding direct impos-ition, then you will be considered impolite. All these examples are from Sudlow (2001: 47), with minor changes. That is, the passer-by is acting as if the utterance was a direct speech act instead of an indirect speech act used as a request for directions. They are the impersonal and the passive. (3) George saw the dog. http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/alba/foghlam/beag_air_bheag/phrase_book.shtml Reference In discussing deixis, we assumed that the use of words to refer to people, places and times was a simple matter. woman noun): The woman kept a large snake in a cage, but it escaped recently. that the delivery driver will have to return on February 15th to 660 College Drive with the long box labeled owers, handle with care addressed to Lisa Landry). an article (Art) the and a noun (N) dog. Shes written a story about her cat and the cat next door. Forexample, we have already seen that a noun phrase can consist of an expressionsuch as the dog (article plus noun), or it (pronoun), or Cathy (proper noun). How are other categories of adjectives ordered? (7) They have two children. But then they thought that the ruins looked as if they had been in their dilapidated state for much longer than that, so they asked the boy which war he meant. (11) Yuri works downtown in one of those huge modern glass buildings. (For background reading, see the section on Future in Hurford, 1994. ratified by the UK government. For example, someone trying to learn English might be tempted to think that questions of the type in (2) are formed simply by moving the second word in a statement (1) to become the rst word of a question (2).Syntax 107 (1) Shaggy is tired. In this article, the leniting effect of such words is indicated, where relevant, by the superscript "+L" (e.g. Generally, stress is on the first syllable in Gaelic. To perform an act of reference, we can use proper nouns (Chomsky, Jennifer, Whiskas), other nouns in phrases (a writer, my friend, the cat) or pronouns (he, she, it). instruction in others. We also accept The White House has announced . (3) I bet you $20. Scottish Gaelic, however, does not use stress and very rarely uses word order changes to create emphasis. Why not? If we had to provide the crucial distinguishing features of the meanings of a setof English words such as table, horse, boy, man, girl, woman, we could begin with thechart in Table 9.1. He replied in the war. By the 9th century Scottish Gaelic had replaced the Pictish In the second example, we must make an inference like if X is a bus, then X has a driver in order to make the connection between a bus and the driver. They (d) The bookstore has some new titles in linguistics. PNIt is important to remember that, although there are three constituents inside thesecurly brackets, only one of them can be selected on any occasion. When the verb is intransitive, then the order is still verb initial: When the verb is ditransitive, then the order is VSO followed by a prepositional phrase (PP) indicating the indirect object (i.e. (9) Every year the suits come down from the main ofce and explain to us why we have to work harder and do more with less. We can go further and make a broad distinction between conceptual meaning and associative meaning. In order to talk about this process, we need to expand our phrase structure rules toinclude an auxiliary verb (Aux) as part of the sentence. We have not yet considered the fact that weusually know how the speaker intends us to take (or interpret the function of) what issaid. Instructions: Identify the POORLY-formed sentences. They settled mainly in Nova In turn, the NP constituent isNP NP Art N Art N The girl [The] [girl]Figure 8.1 VPV NP Art Nsaw a dogFigure 8.298 The Study of Language SNP VPArt N V NP Art NThe girl saw a dogFigure 8.3divided into two other constituents (Art and N). (5) The team played badly. The Latin/English letter set is used, but Gidhlig assigns its own sounds and usages to the letters. This other underlying level, where the basic components (Noun Phrase Verb Noun Phrase) shared by the two sentences can be represented, is called their deep structure. (a) If youre free, theres going to be a party at Yuris place on Saturday. Here are twenty-five useful Gaelic phrases, some vocabulary, and how to count to ten. In this case, a brandname for a motorcycle is being used to refer to a person.InferenceAs in the Mr. The basic sentence order in a Gaelic sentence (V NP NP) is described as Verb Subject Object or VSO. 5 Given these other Gaelic words, translate the following sentences into English. But perhaps the best Scottish Gaelic turn of phrase we should learn is the uplifting answer to the question 'how are you?'. ), and the passer-by answers that question literally (I know . Apart from this, tense and aspect marking are very similar in the two languages. All so-called "compound prepositions" consist of a simple preposition and a noun, and therefore the word they refer to is in the genitive case: Some prepositions have different forms (ending in -s or -n) when followed by the article. (4) Is the cat that is missing called Blackie? If you ask a thousand people what they think of when you say hammer, more than half will say nail. Prototypes While the words canary, cormorant, dove, duck, amingo, parrot, pelican and robin are all equally co-hyponyms of the superordinate bird, they are not all considered to be equally good examples of the category bird. According to some researchers, the most characteristic instance of the category bird is robin. In a camaraderie system, the appearance of openness and niceness is to be sought above all else. Below are some basic descriptions from Lakoff (1990) of three types of politeness, called distance politeness, deference politeness and camaraderie politeness. (5) *Ban an cu an dune beag. Imperative Command (Request)You ate the pizza. In most dictionaries, bat, mail, mole and sole areclearly treated as homonyms whereas face, foot, get, head and run are treated asexamples of polysemy. With non-gradable antonyms (also called complementary pairs), comparativeconstructions are not normally used. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights), Information about Scottish Gaelic | The list of common symbols and abbreviations is summarized here.S sentence NP noun phrase PN proper nounN noun VP verb phrase Adv adverbV verb Adj adjective Prep prepositionArt article Pro pronoun PP prepositional phrase* ungrammatical sentence! The body in charge of the development The polysemy of lamb allows the two interpret-ations. Welcome to The Scottish Gaelic Grammar Wiki, Welcome to the publicly accessible source for information on Scottish Gaelic Grammar. Links | Nouns with neuter gender in Old Gaelic were redistributed between the masculine and feminine. if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[336,280],'omniglot_com-large-leaderboard-2','ezslot_6',161,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-omniglot_com-large-leaderboard-2-0'); Copyright 19982023 Simon Ager | Email: | Hosted by Kualo, http://www.gaeliccollege.edu/about/gaelic-resources/gaelic-expressions.html, http://members.tripod.com/~scotgaelic/phrases.html, http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/alba/foghlam/beag_air_bheag/phrase_book.shtml, http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ionnsachadh/bgfp/, http://www.scottishradiance.com/galsec.htm, Tha mi toilichte ur coinneachadh (frm/pl), An urrainn dhut bruidhinn ns maille? Sign-up to our newsletter! You can say this when you've bumped into someone or when you apologise for having to leave a conversation. In fact, the potential number is unlimited. City. In the complement phrase, the part Mary helped you represents a sentence (S), so there must be a rule: CP ! Gaelic has no indefinite article. " You are an early riser! The superscript "+L" indicates that the following word is lenited. Prep NPLexical rulesPhrase structure rules generate structures. ______________________H The concept of recursion is used in syntax to describe the repeated application of a rule to the output of an earlier application of the rule. These rules can be treated as a representation of the underlying or deepstructures of sentences in English. Which of the following active sentences can be restructured into passive sentences using this rule? Gaelic has very few irregular verbs, conjugational paradigms being remarkably consistent for two verb classes, with the two copular or "be" verbs being the most irregular. In English, we have to have conflicting polarity in our tagged questions, such as 'You're not going there, are you?' I know that Justin said, Ill help you, darling, but he wasnt actually promising anything, Im sure.D Which of these utterances contain performative verbs and how did you decide? {a, the}N ! Synonymous forms may also differ in terms of formal versus informal uses.

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